As we know that the statements about variables considered to be true or false are propositions. A hypothesis is a proposition that can be verified to determine its reality. Therefore we can say verifiable counterpart of a proposition. Logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables may be defined as hypothesis that expressed in the form of a testable statement.

Some of the hypotheses are:

1. Level of efficiency is associated with the level of job commitment of the officer.
2. The lower the level of absenteeism the higher will be the level of job commitment of the officer.

Above examples of hypotheses are testable propositions. Only one variable contains by first hypothesis. In the second hypothesis level of absenteeism has been replaced with level of efficiency, the direction of relationship between the two variables is negative.

There are five different types of hypotheses and are as follows:

1. Descriptive Hypothesis
2. Relational Hypothesis
   1. Co-relational Hypotheses
   2. Explanatory Hypotheses
3. Null Hypothesis
4. Alternative Hypothesis
5. Research Hypothesis

Moderating Variables

Moderating variables are the variables which strongly effect on relationship of independent-variables and dependent-variables i.e. existence of a moderating variable transforms the original relationship between dependent and independent variable.

For example, the relationship between quality of a library facilities “X” and performance of the students “Y” has been observed a strong one. Generally this relationship is supposed to be true; it is on the other hand dependent on the interest and tendency of the students. This means that improved performance in the studies will be showed by those students who have interest and tendency to use library.

In the above relationship moderating variable is interest and tendency, that is the one who moderates the strength of the relationship between X and Y.

Dependent variables are those which are affected or the result/outcome of another variable while the variables that discover conditions act on something else is called independent variables. Independent variables are also known by the cause variables and dependent are referred as outcome variables. It is not easy to differentiate between dependent and independent variables. Independent variables can be identified by the help of two questions. First, is it come before other variable in time? Second, based on the suggestion of researcher that one variable is affecting the other variable, if variables occur at the same time. Independent variables have an impact on other variables. Presence of an independent variable must produce the dependent variable; increase of a unit in independent variable causes increase or decrease in a dependent variable. We may also say changes occur in dependent variable could only happened due to independent variable.

It has indicated by a research studies that successful development of new product has an influence on company’s stock market price i.e. the more the product is successful the more will be the market price of company. This shows that success of a product act as an independent variable while market price as dependent variable.

There are many different properties of variables and these properties are based on numerical values we assign them. If the numerical value able to divide in fractions so it may called as continuous variable. Such variable could take huge number of values or can say infinite values, for example age, temperature, income, test score and etc… The values that may be taken by these variables could be within a range or an infinite set in some cases.

On the other hand if a variable has a bounded number of different values and also not allowed to divide into fractions are called discontinuous variables. These variables are also known by discrete variable or categorical variable or classificatory variable. Such variables may further different due to its properties. If two values may only be allowed to assign a variable, that reflects the absence or presence of some property i.e. male/female and employed/unemployed. They are referred as dichotomous. Some other can be added categories like a demographic variable of religion or race. Such variables that can produce data and fit for categories are called discrete or categorical where only some specific values are possible. Let we assume a variable related to automobile, let say if we assigned a value for Honda = 5 and Chevrolet = 6 so no option if available for 5.5 because we cannot divide the value into fractions.

The central idea in research is variable. Variable is simply defined that it is a concept that varies. There are two types of concepts, 1) those that refer with a fixed phenomenon; and 2) those that can vary by quantity or amount. The measures of concept and second type of concept are variables. Anything that varies or changes in value is called variable. It can take two or more values because variable portray a quality that can display difference in value, mostly strength or magnitude. Generally variable is anything which may suppose difference categorical or numerical values. Variables shown to everywhere once we begin to look for them.

Let say gender is a variable; it can take two values i.e. male or female. If we take marital status, it can take the values like single, married, divorced, widowed or never married. Income of the family is also a variable; it can take values from 0 to billions. Attitude of a person towards women empowerment is a variable and its values could be defined in a range from highly favorable to highly unfavorable. Thus the variation can be in amount, quantity, intensity or type. Some of the examples can be absenteeism, gender, age, grade, religion, motivation and production units. A variable could be specific according to situation e.g. gender is a variable and it can take two values (male and female) but if we put ourselves in a particular situation like a classroom for female students, then gender will not be considered as variable in this situation.

The basic units of theory development are called concept, though understanding of relationship among concepts required by theories. Thus the scientist is interested in the relationship among various concepts, once reality gets abstracted into concepts. Prepositions are statements that relate with the logical linkage among concepts. It explains the logical relationship among certain concepts by declaring a universal connection between concepts.

As we know abstraction from observed reality is theory and concepts are at a level of abstraction. When we increase our level of abstract thinking, it requires investigating propositions. When we think about theories, the highest level of abstraction is under consideration because we are investigating the linkage between propositions. Network of propositions is theory.

Development of theory is an essential process of describing facts at higher abstraction level. The generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, processes or occurrences that have given a name is called concept. Such names are being developed for identification of a phenomenon. They may be considered as empirical realities, for example productivity, leadership, motivation, moral, happiness, inflation banana.

Building block of a theory are concepts. It synopsize realism i.e. concepts can be expressed in letters, signs, symbols and words that advance to various objects or events. However, concepts may vary in degree of abstraction and we can put them in steps (ladder of abstraction), representing its different levels.

As the ladder of abstraction moves up, the basic concept becomes wider in scope, more abstract and less open to measurement. There are two levels where scientific researcher operates i.e. abstract level of concepts and empirical level of variables. Objects or events can be observed at empirical level in which we experience reality. Researchers are concerned with the world of observation or can say reality. We name them for its identification, which referred to an abstract level.

Theorists are those who translate the reality’s conceptualization into abstract ideas. Thus it shows that theory deals with abstraction. Ideas are the essence of theory, not things. Concepts that are in isolation could not be theories. A theory begins to construct if we explain how concepts relate to other concepts.

The idea being the science is to worry about expansion of knowledge, to make predictions and discovery of truth. The means by which a basic research hopes to accomplish the purpose is called theory. Scientists establish questions such as: Does interaction of teacher-student influence the performance of student? What makes inflation? There is the element of prediction involved in both these question i.e. if we do such and such then this and this will happen. We are actually looking for explanation on the issues that has risen in the questions. The whole process through which the phenomenon appears is the explanation lie behind the question, and understanding of the process will reach us to the prediction.

The two purposes of theory are prediction and theory. Accomplishment of first goal allows the theorist to predict the characteristics of a phenomenon from the understanding of another phenomenon’s behavior. It may theorize by a business researcher that younger investors tend to be less interested in investing than older investors. Once this theory verified, it will allow researchers to predict the value of anticipated dividend yield on the basis of age of investor. In most of the scenarios understanding of process and prediction move hand in hand i.e. for the prediction of phenomenon, we should have an explanation that why variables behave the way they are. Explanations would be provided by theories.

Action Research:

The research that act knowledge as a form of power and eliminate the line between social and research action is called action research. Those who are being involved in the research process; research integrates normal and popular knowledge; it concentrate on the power with an objective of empowerment; research seeks to increase awareness; and tied up directly with political action.

The researchers try to improve conditions by expanding public awareness. They are not value neutral and explicitly political because goal is to develop the conditions of research participants, articles, formal reports and books. It assumes by action researcher that experience can be developed from knowledge, particularly about social political action. They also assume that action can be taken by ordinary people to bring improvement if they become aware of the conditions.

Impact Assessment Research:

The purpose of impact assessment research is to estimate the expected consequences of a planned change. It is used to plan and make choices from different policies. It is used to assess the change in environment by establishing a new Dam or to find the change in housing after building a new highway.

Evaluation Research:

Such research is based on the question “Did it work?” it is the process of establishing value judgment based on the facts about achievement of the program goals. To measure the effectiveness of program, policy, or way of doing something, evaluation research can be used. Evaluation researcher use several research techniques like field research and surveys and answer many question i.e. Did it accomplish the target? Did the program work? and many more.

Evaluation research is sub divided into two types, formative evaluation and summative evaluation. Formative research is to monitor and collect continuous feedback on any activity or program while summative research emphasize on the final outcomes. Both are usually necessary.

The techniques and procedures utilized by the basic and applied researcher do not differ a lot. Both used scientific methods to answer the questions. The primary consumer of basic research is the scientific community. On the other hand practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and decision maker like managers, committees and other officials are the consumers of applied research. Mostly results of applied research used by someone other than a researcher who needs to conduct study. This shows that applied researchers have a liability to translate finding from scientific technical language into decision maker’s language or practitioner’s language. Mostly the applied research results do not enter into the public domain for publications. These results may only be available to a little number of decision makers or practitioners, and they let decide that how to put the research results into practice or whether use the results or not.

Different orientations being adopted towards research methodology by applied and basic researcher. Basic researcher tries to conduct utmost perfect research and emphasize high standards. While applied researcher may compromise scientific accuracy to get quick and useable results. The make more tradeoffs. But the compromise doesn’t mean to conduct a poor research however, applied researcher squeeze research into the limitation of an applied setting and balance rigidity against practical needs. For such balancing an in-depth knowledge of research and awareness of consequences of compromising standards required.